The African Jihads





Jihad, the Muslim word meaning holy war. During the 18th and 19th centuries,

this word brought fear to anyone who did not fully believe in the Islamic state

and resided in West Africa. The Jihads of this era not only changed the faith

of many people, but also the landscape of West African democracy. Although

Islamic Jihads had occurred in the past, they never surmounted to the magnitude

of those of the 18th century. What factors and leaders caused the West African

Jihads, of the 18th and 19th centuries, to be so effective?

The people of West Africa were tired of governments who constantly over taxed

its constituents, and simply did not care for the well being of common

individuals. The Islamic religion, which was brought to Africa by Muslim

traders, provided individuals a new opportunity of promise, equality, and the

possibility of becoming a spiritual being. Islam embraced the majority of West

African people and became known as the dominant religion of the region.

During the end of the 18th century followers of the religion came to the

conclusion that it was simply not sufficient to have Islam be the dominant

religion of the area. They felt that Islam needed to be part of the government,

instead of having the separation of church and state.

In the 18th and 19th centuries the Islamic population of West Africa united

with the common belief that under Sharia(Islamic law) the government would not

oppress individuals, and the law of the Koran would become the law of the land.

"The Sharia provided an alternative model of government with which to compare

and confront rulers." This movement, which focused on expelling the

non-Orthodox Muslim leaders of West Africa, is due to the leadership of Usman

Dan Fodio and Al-Hajj-Umar. These men paved the way for the expansion of Islam

through the creation of the Orthodox Sokoto and Tukolor Empires.

The rise of the Islamic Jihad and the expansion of both Empires, are at the

outset due to the oppression of the Fulbe people in the early 1700''s. The Fulbe

were pastoralist nomads who at the time had settled in the region of Futa Jalon,

which is present day state of Guinea. In this region the Fulbe were oppressed

by the ruling pagan farmers, who considered them intruders to the land. These

pagan authoritarians subjugated the Fulbe people to extraneous taxes and

enforced several laws to keep them from trading. Due to these extreme

factors, the Fulbe looked to answer their miseries by turning to the religion

of Islam, which promised a better future.

The answer to the Fulbe problems came in the form of unification. As the

population of Fulbe increased in Futa Jalon, they began to forge together and

fight against their oppressors. Fulbe leaders united their people by

proclaiming that the ruling pagan people were not enforcing the Islamic

religion, and the only answer would be to proclaim a Jihad on the ruling

government. The Jihad of the early 1700''s was fierce and competitive, but

finally ended in victory for the Fulbe. By this achievement the Fulbe created

a Sharia run government in Futa Jalon, and a safe haven for all who wanted to

live under Islamic rule.

The Fulbe victory in Futa Jalon is significant because not only did it create an

Islamic run society, but it also demonstrated that victory over a ruling

government could be attained through the use of a Jihad. This accomplishment

sparked great enthusiasm throughout the region, and gave a glimmer of hope to

those wishing to live under an Islamic fundamentalist society. An indication

of the enthusiasm was revealed by another Jihad in the south of Senegal. This

area, known as Futa Toro, was another enormous victory for all who believed in

the principles of Islamic Orthodoxy. These small triumphs inspired great

leaders who eventually toppled the formation of West Africa.

The first of these leaders was a man by the name of Usman dan Fodio. Usman was

born in the Hausa state of Gobir, in what is now northwestern Nigeria. While he

was still young, Usman moved south with his family to Degel, where he studied

the Koran with his father. Subsequently he moved on to other scholar relatives,

traveling from teacher to teacher in the traditional way, and reading

extensively in the Islamic sciences. One powerful intellectual and religious

influence at this time was his teacher in the southern Saharan city of Agadez,

Jibril ibn ''Umar, a radically Orthodox figure whom Usman respected greatly.

Umar educated Usman on the importance of Orthodoxy, and told him stories of how

the Fulbe defeated their oppressors through the method of Jihad. It was at this

period that Usman discovered that if one decides to live under the Islamic

faith, they must follow the Koran from top to bottom.

In the upcoming years Usman moved to Gobir where he taught and led a community

of Fulbe people. Usman always discussed the importance of Islamic Orthodoxy.

"His two main concerns were the concerns were the conversion of those Fulani

pastoralists who still clung to pagan religious beliefs, and the religious and

social reform of the nominally Muslim Hausa rulers." Throughout the 1780s and

''90s Usman''s reputation increased, as did the size and importance of the

community that looked to him for religious and political leadership. It was

even thought that Usman was the second coming of the prophet Muhammad.

Usman at this time became worried at the interest that Hausa rulers gave to his

community, and therefore ordered his followers to become armed. The growing

influence of Usman and his followers began to cause great fear among Hausa

leaders. The Hausa governments fear grew from the belief that a state was

growing within a state. Eventually the Hausa government felt that Usman''s

influence was too great and began to take military action. Usman, who seems to

have wished to avoid conflict, chose to migrate his community. Like the

Prophet Muhammad, whose biography he frequently noted as having close parallels

with his own, Usman carried out a hegira (migration) to Gudu, an area 30 miles

to the northwest, in February 1804. Despite his own apparent reluctance, he was

elected imam (leader) of the community, and the new caliphate was formally

established.

During the next five years Usman''s primary interest became the organization of

a jihad. He did not himself take part in military expeditions, but he appointed

commanders, encouraged the army, handled diplomatic questions, and wrote widely

on problems relating to the jihad and its theoretical justification. On this his

basic position he was clear and rigorous: the sultan of Gobir(A Hausa ruler) had

attacked the Muslims; therefore he was an unbeliever and as such he must be

fought; and anyone helping an unbeliever was also an unbeliever.

Usman knew that if the Jihad against the Hausa government were to be won,

support outside of his Orthodox community must be established. Therefore, Usman

began to campaign his beliefs, regarding the treatment of the peasantry, across

Gobir. Usman proclaimed that the peasantry were being subjugated to rules that

were unjust. One example of such an impropriety is a tax which the government

put on cattle. Following several years of self promotion, vast amounts of

people began to join him in his movement.

Usman had accomplished his goal of creating a group of followers that would

be able to compete against the Hausaland government. It was at this point that

Usman believed it was plausible to start the Jihad. After 4 years of heavy

fighting Usman''s army proclaimed victory, and thoroughly defeated the Hausaland

opposition. All of the Hausa kings were now replaced by Fulbe emirs who

acknowledged the supreme authority of Usman.

The core of the new Empire was composed of three large former Hausa kingdoms,

which include Katsina, Kano, and Zaria (Zegzeg). A Fulbe aristocracy had now

taken over the Hausa system of government and brought it into line with the

principles of Islam as stated by Usman. However, the new kingdom did not stop at

these boundaries. Hausa clerics and adventurers joined with the Fulbe in

creating new Muslim kingdoms throughout parts of Western Africa. Among the

new followers were the pagan and largely stateless peoples of the Bauchi

highlands, and various groups in the grasslands of northern Cameroon.

After these tremendous victories Usman retired from his political life and spent

his time concentrating on the study of Islam. Usman decided his work had been

accomplished, and he was too old to keep fighting. He passed his leadership

role on to his brother Abdullahi, and his son Muhammad Bello. These two

individuals learned firsthand from Usman and therefore they were the only

appropriate candidates to lead the empire. By the time of Usman''s death in

1817, the Empire had been divided into two parts and governed separately by

Bello and Abdullahi. The Empire was formally partitioned between Sokoto, and

Gwandu.

Muhammad Bello eventually took control of the Empire and governed under the same

religious ideals as his father. The Empire, which came to known as Sokoto, grew

under the control of Muhammad. It was estimated that at one point during

Muhammad''s reign, the Sokoto population grew to over 10 million people, thus

making it the largest West African state up to that point.

The next great leader, whom must be discussed is Umar Tal. Umar Tal was born in

the upper valley of the Senegal River, in the land of the Tukulor people. At

the age of 23, Umar set out on the pilgrimage to Mecca. He was already well

known for his faithfulness and intellect and was received with honor in the

countries through which he traveled. Muhammad Bello, offered him his daughter

Maryam in marriage. Enriched by this princely alliance, ''Umar had become an

important personage when he reached Mecca about 1827. He visited the tomb of the

Prophet in Medina, returned to Mecca, and then settled for a while in Cairo.

Armed with his prestige as a scholar, mystic, and miracle worker, Umar returned

to the interior of Africa in 1833. Trained for political leadership by his

father-in-law and Muhammad Bello, with whom he again spent several years, his

position as leader strengthened. Umar now decided to obey the voice of God and

to convert the pagan Africans to Islam. By now he not only was looked upon as

a miracle worker, but he also acquired a legion of loyal followers.

As years passed Umar''s influence and followers increased significantly. Umar In

1848 moved with his followers to Dinguiraye, an area on the border of Futa

Jalon. There he built up a community of his own, attracting and training

military and commercial adventurers as well as religious reformers. His

community traded with the Upper Guinea coast for firearms and was consciously

conceived as the nucleus for a new state.

Umar''s state grew to be so powerful, that in 1850 he felt it was his Islamic

duty to embark on a jihad against the neighboring pagans. The Jihad first came

into conflict with the Bambara chiefdoms to the north, then two years later

moved across the upper Senegal River to conquer the Bambara kingdom of Kaarta.

In almost no time at all Umar''s territory, which came to be known as the Tuklor

Empire, extended their dominion as far north as Timbuktu. Umar, however made

a pivotal mistake by extending his Empire so greatly. By having such a vast

region under his control, he could not effectively supervise every community.

This led to the eventual demise of the Tukolor Empire. Al-Hajj-Umar''s Empire

did last 50 years, until it was finally annexed by the French in 1897.

The success of the 18th century West African Jihads can be attributed to the

guidance of their two leaders, and the weary sentiment of the people regarding

their presiding governments. Usman Dan Fodio and Al-Hajj-Umar promised a better

life under an Islamic form of government, and people quickly joined their

movements. Many people also relished being able to join a movement of spiritual

promise. These people believed the Islamic faith gave them the opportunity of

achieving a form of social equality.

The two leaders preached to their followers that the only possible way to live

is under an Islamic government; and any form of government that does not follow

Sharia is immoral. This belief created a great amount fear in many individuals,

which caused them to fight for Islam at any cost. Finally, the Orthodox form of

government in both Empires, caused the people to unify under a common Orthodox

belief. This ideological conviction was a belief Islamic individuals were

willing to die for, and eventually produced victory in the 18th century West

African Jihads.



Johnston, H.A.S.: The Fulani Empire of Sokoto, Pg. 126. Oxford Press, 1989.



Robinson, David: The Holy War of Umar Tal the Western Sudan in the

mid-nineteenth



century. Pg, 220Clarendon Press. Oxford. 1985.



Shillington, Kevin: The History of Africa. Pg,227. St. Martins Press. Ny. 1995.